Heavy Metal Contamination and Physiochemical Parameters of Water, Fishes and Sediments in Jos South Plateau State, North Central, Nigeria using X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometer
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.62292/10.62292/njp.v34i2.2025.395Keywords:
Fish, Heavy metals, Jerek, Physiochemical, Pollution, Pond, Sediments, WaterAbstract
Consumers health may be in danger if exposed to heavy metals, particularly in food. Water, biota, and sediments in and around abandoned mining ponds could be polluted with heavy metals which may impact the well-being of fish consumers from these ponds. This study aimed to determine the physiochemical parameters of water samples and the level of heavy metals in two abandoned mining ponds in Jerek community, Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State, Nigeria. Water samples were collected from two ponds (Ponds 1 and 2) and analyzed to measure the concentrations of five heavy metals (Ni, Mn, Pb, Cd and Fe) using an XRF spectrometer (Model AA240FS). The results of the water quality assessment showed that the water samples in Pond 1 had a Pb and Cd contamination value of 2.2 mg/L and 2.0 mg/L respectively, which is above the WHO (World Health Organization) acceptable limit of 0.03 – 0.5mg/L, while Pond 2 had higher contamination of Pb (2.4mg/L) and Cd (2.6mg/L) which also are above the WHO acceptable limit. The catfish in pond 2 had the highest concentration of Cd (5.08mg/L) which signifies a toxic level of concentration when compared with (Federal Environmental Protection Agency) FEPA and WHO acceptable limit. The concentration levels in the sediment were high in Cd (1.55mg/L) in Pond 1 and Cd (1.703mg/L) in Pond 2 as compared to other heavy metals of interest. These values however fall within the WHO, 2018 and FAO, 2019 acceptable limits. The physiochemical properties: pH, Salinity, Turbidity, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), total dissolved solids (TDS) and Electrical Conductivity, were all within the FEPA and WHO permissible limits. The study concludes that the fish from the selected ponds especially catfish are potentially harmful to consumers' health. Hence a need for regular monitoring and evaluation of water, sediments and fish in...
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Adewoye, S. O., Adenigba, V. O., Adewoye, A. O., & Adagunodo, T. A. (2021, February). Bioremediation of heavy metals from pharmaceutical industry sewages using bimetallic nanoparticles of Eichorniacrassipes. In IOP conference series: earth and environmental science (Vol. 655, No. 1, p. 012021). IOP Publishing.
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Al-Saleh I, Abduljabbar M. Heavy metals (lead, cadmium, methylmercury, arsenic) in commonly imported rice grains (Oryza sativa) sold in Saudi Arabia and their potential health risk. International journal of hygiene and environmental health. 2017 Oct 1;220(7):1168-78.
American Public Health Association. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association.; 2005.
Ayandiran TA, Fawole OO, Adewoye SO, Ogundiran MA. Bioconcentration of metals in the body muscle and gut of Clarias gariepinus exposed to sublethal concentrations of soap and detergent effluent. Journal of Cell and Animal Biology. 2009 Aug;3(8):113-8.
Baatrup E. Structural and functional effects of heavy metals on the nervous system, including sense organs, of fish. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Comparative Pharmacology. 1991 Jan 1;100(1-2):253-7.
Baby, J., Raj, J. S., Biby, E. T., Sankarganesh, P., Jeevitha, M. V., Ajisha, S. U., & Rajan, S. S. (2010). Toxic effect of heavy metals on aquatic environment. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 4(4).
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Bhupander Kumar, B. K., Sanjay Kumar, S. K., Meenu Mishra, M. M., Dev Prakash, D. P., Singh, S. K., Sharma, C. S., & Mukherjee, D. P. (2011). An assessment of heavy metals in sediments from two tributaries of lower stretch of Hugli estuary in West Bengal.
Boamponsem LK, Adam JI, Dampare SB, Owusu-Ansah E, Addae G. Heavy metals level in streams of Tarkwa gold mining area of Ghana. J Chem Pharm Res. 2010 Sep 29;2(3):504-27.
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Bruton MN. The effects of suspensoids on fish. In Perspectives in Southern Hemisphere Limnology: Proceedings of a Symposium, held in Wilderness, South Africa, July 3–13, 1984 1985 (pp. 221-241). Springer Netherlands.
Chandra R, Bharagava RN, Yadav S, Mohan D. Accumulation and distribution of toxic metals in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and Indian mustard (Brassica campestris L.) irrigated with distillery and tannery effluents. Journal of hazardous materials. 2009 Mar 15;162(2-3):1514-21.
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Covich AP, Palmer MA, Crowl TA. The role of benthic invertebrate species in freshwater ecosystems: zoobenthic species influence energy flows and nutrient cycling. Bio Science. 1999 Feb 1;49(2):119-27.
Dabak JD, Dabal LJ, Jakwa AG, Ajiji EA. Assessment of Levels of Some Metals in Water and Fish from Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Environment & Ecology. 2019 Oct 3;10(2):1-1.
Deutsch C, Brix H, Ito T, Frenzel H, Thompson L. Climate-forced variability of ocean hypoxia. science. 2011 Jul 15;333(6040):336-9.
Evans NJ, Dunham MM, Jørgensen JK, Enoch ML, Merín B, Van Dishoeck EF, Alcalá JM, Myers PC, Stapelfeldt KR, Huard TL, Allen LE. The Spitzer c2d legacy results: star-formation rates and efficiencies; evolution and lifetimes. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 2009 Mar 11;181(2):321.
Fakayode SO, Busch MA, Bellert DJ, Busch KW. Determination of the enantiomeric composition of phenylalanine samples by chemometric analysis of the fluorescence spectra of cyclodextrin guest–host complexes. Analyst. 2005;130(2):233-41.
Ghosh L, Adhikari S, Ayyappan SJ. Assessment of toxic interactions of heavy metals and their effects on accumulation in tissues of freshwater fish. Environ Chem Lett (2017) 15:43-64 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-016-0588-9
Gregoriadou A, Delidou K, Dermosonoglou D, Tsoum PP, Edipidi C, Katsougiannopoulos B. Heavy metals in drinking water in Thessaloniki area, Greece. InProceedings of the 7th international conference on environmental hazards mitigation, Cairo University, Egypt 2001 (pp. 542-556).
Gungsat NJ. Assessment of Heavy Metals in Water and Fish Samples of Abandoned Mining Ponds in Barkin Ladi, Plateau State, Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences (MJBAS) Volume. 2020; 4:18-32.
Hernandez L, Probst A, Probst JL, Ulrich E. Heavy metal distribution in some French forest soils: evidence for atmospheric contamination. Science of the Total Environment. 2003 Aug 1;312(1-3):195-219.
KABATA-PENDIAS A. Weathered crust of the Precambrian basement in north-eastern Poland. Biul. Inst. Geol. 1984;347.
Kramer U, Smith RD, Wenzel WW, Raskin I, Salt DE. The role of metal transport and tolerance in nickel hyperaccumulation by Thlaspi goesingense Halacsy. Plant physiology. 1997 Dec 1;115(4):1641-50.
Li G, Cao Z, Lan D, Xu J, Wang S, Yin W. Spatial variations in grain size distribution and selected metal contents in the Xiamen Bay, China. Environmental Geology. 2007 Aug; 52:1559-67.
McBride MB. Chemisorption of Cd2+ on calcite surfaces. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 1980 Jan;44(1):26-8.
Meng T, Wang C, Florkowski WJ, Yang Z. Determinants of urban consumer expenditure on aquatic products in Shanghai, China. Aquaculture Economics & Management. 2023 Jan 2;27(1):1-24.
National Research Council, Division on Earth, Life Studies, Board on Environmental Studies, Committee on Fluoride in Drinking Water. Fluoride in drinking water: a scientific review of EPA's standards.2007 Mar 11;7(8):3-10.
Nriagu JO. Global inventory of natural and anthropogenic emissions of trace metals to the atmosphere. Nature. 1979 May 31;279(5712):409-11.
Ong MC, Menier DD, Shazili NA, Kamaruzzaman BY. Geochemical characteristics of heavy metals concentration in sediments of Quiberon Bay Waters, South Brittany, France. Oriental Journal of Chemistry. 2013 Mar 11;29(1):39-45.
Orebiyi, E. O., Awomeso, J. A., Idowu, O. A., Martins, O., Oguntoke, O., & Taiwo, A. M. (2010). Assessment of pollution hazards of shallow well water in Abeokuta and environs, southwest, Nigeria.
Orosun MM, Lawal QT, Ehinlafa EO, Egbeyale GB, Okwajebi GO, Adewuyi AD. Assessment of Radionuclide Concentrations in Catfish and Tilapia fish from Asa-Dam Ilorin, North-central Nigeria. African Scientific Reports. 2023 Apr 29:101-.
Osibanjo O, Majolagbe AO. Physicochemical quality assessment of groundwater based on land use in Lagos city, southwest, Nigeria. Chem J. 2012;2(2):79-86.
Popoola JO, Adegbite AE, Obembe OO, Adewale BD, Odu BO. Morphological intraspecific variabilities in African yam bean (AYB) (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Ex. A. Rich) Harms. Scientific Research and Essay. 2011 Feb 4;6(3):507-15.
Rai PK. Heavy metal phytoremediation from aquatic ecosystems with special reference to macrophytes. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 2009 Aug 31;39(9):697-753.
Rudnick RL, Gao S, Ling WL, Liu YS, McDonough WF. Petrology and geochemistry of spinel peridotite xenoliths from Hannuoba and Qixia, North China craton. Lithos. 2004 Sep 1;77(1-4):609-37.
Sankhla MS, Kumar R, Shefali. New and advanced technologies in aquaculture to support environmentally sustainable development. Microbial Biotechnology: Basic Research and Applications. 2020:249-63.
Sardar K, Ali S, Hameed S, Afzal S, Fatima S, Shakoor MB, Bharwana SA, Tauqeer HM. Heavy metals contamination and what are the impacts on living organisms. Greener Journal of Environmental management and public safety. 2013 Aug;2(4):172-9.
Shakeri A, Moore F, Modabberi S. Heavy metal contamination and distribution in the Shiraz industrial complex zone soil, South Shiraz, Iran. World Applied Sciences Journal. 2009 Apr 22;6(3):413-25.
Sharma MK, Jain CK, Singhal DC, Choubey VK. Kinetics of sorption of lead on bed sediments of River Hindon, India. Environmental monitoring and assessment. 2009 Oct; 157:11-21.
Shittu OB, Olaitan JO, Amusa TS. Physico-chemical and bacteriological analyses of water used for drinking and swimming purposes in abeokuta, nigeria. African Journal of Biomedical Research. 2008;11(3).
Singh Sankhla M, Kumar R, Prasad L. Seasonal variations of lead and chromium concentrations in the water samples from Yamuna River in Delhi, India. Iranian Journal of Toxicology. 2021 May 10;15(2):109-14.
Sonone SS, Jadhav S, Sankhla MS, Kumar R. Water contamination by heavy metals and their toxic effect on aquaculture and human health through food Chain. Lett. Appl. NanoBioScience.2020 Oct;10(2):2148-66.
Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON) guidelines on drinking water Act 412;2007.
Tavakoli-Hosseinabady B, Ziarati P, Ballali E, Umachandran K. Detoxification of heavy metals from leafy edible vegetables by agricultural waste: apricot pit shell. J Environ Anal Toxicol. 2018;8(1):548.
US Department of Health and Human Services. Agency for toxic substances and disease registry. 2007. Toxicological profile for lead. 2005 Nov.
Varol M. Assessment of heavy metal contamination in sediments of the Tigris River (Turkey) using pollution indices and multivariate statistical techniques. Journal of hazardous materials. 2011 Nov 15; 195:355-64.
WASTE S. Human Health Evaluation Manual. RISK. 1991 Mar 25;1003.
Wetzel RG. Transudation of elevated atmospheric CO2 and natural light through altered carbon fluxes and higher trophic level production in aquatic ecosystems. Internationale Vereinigung für theoretische und angewandte Limnologie: Verhandlungen. 2006 Mar 1;29(3):1112-28.
Abraham J, Dowling K, Florentine S. Assessment of potentially toxic metal contamination in the soils of a legacy mine site in Central Victoria, Australia. Chemosphere. 2018 Feb 1; 192:122-32.
Adewoye, S. O., Adenigba, V. O., Adewoye, A. O., & Adagunodo, T. A. (2021, February). Bioremediation of heavy metals from pharmaceutical industry sewages using bimetallic nanoparticles of Eichorniacrassipes. In IOP conference series: earth and environmental science (Vol. 655, No. 1, p. 012021). IOP Publishing.
Ali MM, Ali ML, Islam MS, Rahman MZ. Assessment of toxic metals in water and sediment of Pasur River in Bangladesh. Water science and technology. 2018 Mar 12;77(5):1418-30.
Al-Saleh I, Abduljabbar M. Heavy metals (lead, cadmium, methylmercury, arsenic) in commonly imported rice grains (Oryza sativa) sold in Saudi Arabia and their potential health risk. International journal of hygiene and environmental health. 2017 Oct 1;220(7):1168-78.
American Public Health Association. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association.; 2005.
Ayandiran TA, Fawole OO, Adewoye SO, Ogundiran MA. Bioconcentration of metals in the body muscle and gut of Clarias gariepinus exposed to sublethal concentrations of soap and detergent effluent. Journal of Cell and Animal Biology. 2009 Aug;3(8):113-8.
Baatrup E. Structural and functional effects of heavy metals on the nervous system, including sense organs, of fish. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Comparative Pharmacology. 1991 Jan 1;100(1-2):253-7.
Baby, J., Raj, J. S., Biby, E. T., Sankarganesh, P., Jeevitha, M. V., Ajisha, S. U., & Rajan, S. S. (2010). Toxic effect of heavy metals on aquatic environment. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 4(4).
Bellinger DL, Millar BA, Perez S, Carter J, Wood C, ThyagaRajan S, Molinaro C, Lubahn C, Lorton D. Sympathetic modulation of immunity: relevance to disease. Cellular immunology. 2008 Jan 1;252(1-2):27-56.
Bhupander Kumar, B. K., Sanjay Kumar, S. K., Meenu Mishra, M. M., Dev Prakash, D. P., Singh, S. K., Sharma, C. S., & Mukherjee, D. P. (2011). An assessment of heavy metals in sediments from two tributaries of lower stretch of Hugli estuary in West Bengal.
Boamponsem LK, Adam JI, Dampare SB, Owusu-Ansah E, Addae G. Heavy metals level in streams of Tarkwa gold mining area of Ghana. J Chem Pharm Res. 2010 Sep 29;2(3):504-27.
Brett JR. Environmental factors and growth. InFish physiology 1979 Jan 1 (Vol. 8, pp. 599-675). Academic press.
Bruton MN. The effects of suspensoids on fish. In Perspectives in Southern Hemisphere Limnology: Proceedings of a Symposium, held in Wilderness, South Africa, July 3–13, 1984 1985 (pp. 221-241). Springer Netherlands.
Chandra R, Bharagava RN, Yadav S, Mohan D. Accumulation and distribution of toxic metals in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and Indian mustard (Brassica campestris L.) irrigated with distillery and tannery effluents. Journal of hazardous materials. 2009 Mar 15;162(2-3):1514-21.
Chapman D, Kimstach V. The Selection of Water Quality Variable In: Water Quality Assessments (Chapman, D. Ed.) Chapman and Hall Ltd. London. 1992; 8:51-119.
Chukwu MN, Dike JO, Okoli CG. Assessment of the level of contamination of soils from a dumpsite at Onitsha, Nigeria. FUW Trends in Science & Technology Journal. 2019;4(2):469-72.
Covich AP, Palmer MA, Crowl TA. The role of benthic invertebrate species in freshwater ecosystems: zoobenthic species influence energy flows and nutrient cycling. Bio Science. 1999 Feb 1;49(2):119-27.
Dabak JD, Dabal LJ, Jakwa AG, Ajiji EA. Assessment of Levels of Some Metals in Water and Fish from Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Environment & Ecology. 2019 Oct 3;10(2):1-1.
Deutsch C, Brix H, Ito T, Frenzel H, Thompson L. Climate-forced variability of ocean hypoxia. science. 2011 Jul 15;333(6040):336-9.
Evans NJ, Dunham MM, Jørgensen JK, Enoch ML, Merín B, Van Dishoeck EF, Alcalá JM, Myers PC, Stapelfeldt KR, Huard TL, Allen LE. The Spitzer c2d legacy results: star-formation rates and efficiencies; evolution and lifetimes. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 2009 Mar 11;181(2):321.
Fakayode SO, Busch MA, Bellert DJ, Busch KW. Determination of the enantiomeric composition of phenylalanine samples by chemometric analysis of the fluorescence spectra of cyclodextrin guest–host complexes. Analyst. 2005;130(2):233-41.
Ghosh L, Adhikari S, Ayyappan SJ. Assessment of toxic interactions of heavy metals and their effects on accumulation in tissues of freshwater fish. Environ Chem Lett (2017) 15:43-64 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-016-0588-9
Gregoriadou A, Delidou K, Dermosonoglou D, Tsoum PP, Edipidi C, Katsougiannopoulos B. Heavy metals in drinking water in Thessaloniki area, Greece. InProceedings of the 7th international conference on environmental hazards mitigation, Cairo University, Egypt 2001 (pp. 542-556).
Gungsat NJ. Assessment of Heavy Metals in Water and Fish Samples of Abandoned Mining Ponds in Barkin Ladi, Plateau State, Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences (MJBAS) Volume. 2020; 4:18-32.
Hernandez L, Probst A, Probst JL, Ulrich E. Heavy metal distribution in some French forest soils: evidence for atmospheric contamination. Science of the Total Environment. 2003 Aug 1;312(1-3):195-219.
KABATA-PENDIAS A. Weathered crust of the Precambrian basement in north-eastern Poland. Biul. Inst. Geol. 1984;347.
Kramer U, Smith RD, Wenzel WW, Raskin I, Salt DE. The role of metal transport and tolerance in nickel hyperaccumulation by Thlaspi goesingense Halacsy. Plant physiology. 1997 Dec 1;115(4):1641-50.
Li G, Cao Z, Lan D, Xu J, Wang S, Yin W. Spatial variations in grain size distribution and selected metal contents in the Xiamen Bay, China. Environmental Geology. 2007 Aug; 52:1559-67.
McBride MB. Chemisorption of Cd2+ on calcite surfaces. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 1980 Jan;44(1):26-8.
Meng T, Wang C, Florkowski WJ, Yang Z. Determinants of urban consumer expenditure on aquatic products in Shanghai, China. Aquaculture Economics & Management. 2023 Jan 2;27(1):1-24.
National Research Council, Division on Earth, Life Studies, Board on Environmental Studies, Committee on Fluoride in Drinking Water. Fluoride in drinking water: a scientific review of EPA's standards.2007 Mar 11;7(8):3-10.
Nriagu JO. Global inventory of natural and anthropogenic emissions of trace metals to the atmosphere. Nature. 1979 May 31;279(5712):409-11.
Ong MC, Menier DD, Shazili NA, Kamaruzzaman BY. Geochemical characteristics of heavy metals concentration in sediments of Quiberon Bay Waters, South Brittany, France. Oriental Journal of Chemistry. 2013 Mar 11;29(1):39-45.
Orebiyi, E. O., Awomeso, J. A., Idowu, O. A., Martins, O., Oguntoke, O., & Taiwo, A. M. (2010). Assessment of pollution hazards of shallow well water in Abeokuta and environs, southwest, Nigeria.
Orosun MM, Lawal QT, Ehinlafa EO, Egbeyale GB, Okwajebi GO, Adewuyi AD. Assessment of Radionuclide Concentrations in Catfish and Tilapia fish from Asa-Dam Ilorin, North-central Nigeria. African Scientific Reports. 2023 Apr 29:101-.
Osibanjo O, Majolagbe AO. Physicochemical quality assessment of groundwater based on land use in Lagos city, southwest, Nigeria. Chem J. 2012;2(2):79-86.
Popoola JO, Adegbite AE, Obembe OO, Adewale BD, Odu BO. Morphological intraspecific variabilities in African yam bean (AYB) (Sphenostylis stenocarpa Ex. A. Rich) Harms. Scientific Research and Essay. 2011 Feb 4;6(3):507-15.
Rai PK. Heavy metal phytoremediation from aquatic ecosystems with special reference to macrophytes. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 2009 Aug 31;39(9):697-753.
Rudnick RL, Gao S, Ling WL, Liu YS, McDonough WF. Petrology and geochemistry of spinel peridotite xenoliths from Hannuoba and Qixia, North China craton. Lithos. 2004 Sep 1;77(1-4):609-37.
Sankhla MS, Kumar R, Shefali. New and advanced technologies in aquaculture to support environmentally sustainable development. Microbial Biotechnology: Basic Research and Applications. 2020:249-63.
Sardar K, Ali S, Hameed S, Afzal S, Fatima S, Shakoor MB, Bharwana SA, Tauqeer HM. Heavy metals contamination and what are the impacts on living organisms. Greener Journal of Environmental management and public safety. 2013 Aug;2(4):172-9.
Shakeri A, Moore F, Modabberi S. Heavy metal contamination and distribution in the Shiraz industrial complex zone soil, South Shiraz, Iran. World Applied Sciences Journal. 2009 Apr 22;6(3):413-25.
Sharma MK, Jain CK, Singhal DC, Choubey VK. Kinetics of sorption of lead on bed sediments of River Hindon, India. Environmental monitoring and assessment. 2009 Oct; 157:11-21.
Shittu OB, Olaitan JO, Amusa TS. Physico-chemical and bacteriological analyses of water used for drinking and swimming purposes in abeokuta, nigeria. African Journal of Biomedical Research. 2008;11(3).
Singh Sankhla M, Kumar R, Prasad L. Seasonal variations of lead and chromium concentrations in the water samples from Yamuna River in Delhi, India. Iranian Journal of Toxicology. 2021 May 10;15(2):109-14.
Sonone SS, Jadhav S, Sankhla MS, Kumar R. Water contamination by heavy metals and their toxic effect on aquaculture and human health through food Chain. Lett. Appl. NanoBioScience.2020 Oct;10(2):2148-66.
Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON) guidelines on drinking water Act 412;2007.
Tavakoli-Hosseinabady B, Ziarati P, Ballali E, Umachandran K. Detoxification of heavy metals from leafy edible vegetables by agricultural waste: apricot pit shell. J Environ Anal Toxicol. 2018;8(1):548.
US Department of Health and Human Services. Agency for toxic substances and disease registry. 2007. Toxicological profile for lead. 2005 Nov.
Varol M. Assessment of heavy metal contamination in sediments of the Tigris River (Turkey) using pollution indices and multivariate statistical techniques. Journal of hazardous materials. 2011 Nov 15; 195:355-64.
WASTE S. Human Health Evaluation Manual. RISK. 1991 Mar 25;1003.
Wetzel RG. Transudation of elevated atmospheric CO2 and natural light through altered carbon fluxes and higher trophic level production in aquatic ecosystems. Internationale Vereinigung für theoretische und angewandte Limnologie: Verhandlungen. 2006 Mar 1;29(3):1112-28.
World Health Organization. Cadmium in drinking-water: background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. World Health Organization; 2004.
Wu B, Zhao DY, Jia HY, Zhang Y, Zhang XX, Cheng SP. Preliminary risk assessment of trace metal pollution in surface water from Yangtze River in Nanjing Section, China. Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology. 2009 Apr; 82:405-9.
World Health Organization. Cadmium in drinking-water: background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. World Health Organization; 2004.
Wu B, Zhao DY, Jia HY, Zhang Y, Zhang XX, Cheng SP. Preliminary risk assessment of trace metal pollution in surface water from Yangtze River in Nanjing Section, China. Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology. 2009 Apr; 82:405-9.
